Bio Algae

International Energy Developing New Technologies For The Production Of Biofuels From Algae

2007-10-05T23:45:00.001-07:00

http://bio-algae.blogspot.com/

10/4/2007

Vancouver, BC - International Energy, Inc. recently announced that it has entered into a collaborative research agreement for the development of new technologies for the production of biofuels derived directly from the photosynthesis of green microalgae, which can accumulate up to 30% of their biomass in the form of valuable biofuels.

As a result of high oil prices, depleting fossil oil reserves and growing concerns about increased levels of atmospherica carbon dioxide, algae have emerged as one of the most promising sources for biofuel production.

International Energy's technology seeks to convert water and carbon dioxide into useful long chain hydrocarbons from the photosynthesis of unicellular microalgae, which offer advantages in the production, storage, and utilization of renewable biofuels, as they can be harvested easily, stored in liquid form and do not require special containment systems.

The process of industrial scale algae growth in photo-bioreactors is non-toxic and non-polluting, can be scaled up, offers a renewal energy supply and aids in carbon sequestration and the mitigation of climate change.

In contrast to food crops or cellulosic materials, certain algae produce and accumulate oil naturally and can, in the process, clean up waste by absorbing and utilizing nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide. Additionally, raw algae can be processed to make biofuel, the renewable equivalent of petroleum, and refined to make gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and chemical feedstocks for plastics and drugs.

"Unlike ethanol from traditional fuel crops, such as corn and soybeans, which require considerable time to grow, use large amounts of herbicides and nitrogen fertilizers and consume just as much fossil fuel as the ethanol itself replaces, algae can grow in wastewater, even seawater, and requires little more than sunlight and carbon dioxide to flourish," states Mr. Harmel S. Rayat, a director of International Energy.

Mr. Rayat continues, "While each acre of corn produces around 300 gallons of ethanol each year and an acre of soybeans around 60 gallons of biodiesel, each acre of algae has been estimated to produce upwards of 5,000 gallons of biofuel annually . Also, in contrast to corn or soybeans, which are harvested once a year, algae grows considerably faster and can be harvested every few days."

Algae to Oil

Algae have the unique capability of taking a waste (zero-energy) form of carbon (CO2) and converting it into a high-density liquid form of energy (natural oil). Additionally, oil yields from algae are orders of magnitude higher than traditional oilseeds. As a result, much research has gone into using algae as a potential source of fuel and for the biological mitigation of atmospheric CO2, including the $25M program funded by the DOE at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ("NREL").

The NREL initiative, known as the Aquatic Species Program ("ASP"), was aimed at producing biodiesel from high lipid-content algae grown in ponds, utilizing waste CO2 from coal fired power plants.

After almost two decades (from 1978 to 1996), the ASP was terminated after concluding that the requisite technology was not feasible at a time when crude-oil prices were far too low for algae to compete. A similar conclusion was reached in Japan, but only after $117 million was spent in research.

Despite these early setbacks, current relatively high oil prices, advances in genomic and proteomic technologies and the Bush administration's increased emphasis on renewable fuels have created an unprecedented opportunity for using a lgae as a potentially rich source of biofuels.

In his State of the Union address, President Bush set a goal of replacing 20 percent of gasoline consumption in the United States by 2017, mostly by producing 35 billion gallons of renewable fuels.

Currently, biofuels come from food crops, such as soybeans and corn, and from cellulosic materials, such as wood chips, grass, and cornstalks. Unfortunately, rising demand for food crops in order to produce ethanol is driving prices for the food crops themselves, while cellulosic materials require special processing methods, which have been demonstrated at small plants but have yet to be proved commercially.

In contrast to biofuels from food crops or cellulosic materials, certain algae produce and accumulate oil naturally. As a result, algal hydrocarbons can be utilized for not only bio-diesel fuel in internal combustion engines, for heating or electricity generation, but also can further serve as feedstock in the synthetic chemistry and pharmaceutical industries. Portions of the remaining green algal biomass can be utilized as feedstock in biodegradable polymers and for vitamin rich animal feed.

SOURCE: International Energy, Inc.

Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae

2007-08-27T05:50:00.001-07:00

Michael Briggs, University of New Hampshire, Physics Department

As more evidence comes out daily of the ties between the leaders of petroleum producing countries and terrorists (not to mention the human rights abuses in their own countries), the incentive for finding an alternative to petroleum rises higher and higher. The environmental problems of petroleum have finally been surpassed by the strategic weakness of being dependent on a fuel that can only be purchased from tyrants. The economic strain on our country resulting from the $100-150 billion we spend every year buying oil from other nations, combined with the occasional need to use military might to protect and secure oil reserves our economy depends on just makes matters worse (and using military might for that purpose just adds to the anti-American sentiment that gives rise to terrorism). Clearly, developing alternatives to oil should be one of our nation's highest priorities.

In the United States , oil is primarily used for transportation - roughly two-thirds of all oil use, in fact. So, developing an alternative means of powering our cars, trucks, and buses would go a long way towards weaning us, and the world, off of oil. While the so-called "hydrogen economy" receives a lot of attention in the media, there are several very serious problems with using hydrogen as an automotive fuel. For automobiles, the best alternative at present is clearly biodiesel, a fuel that can be used in existing diesel engines with no changes, and is made from vegetable oils or animal fats rather than petroleum.

In this paper, I will first examine the possibilities of producing biodiesel on the scale necessary to replace all petroleum transportation fuels in the U.S.

I. How much biodiesel?

First, we need to understand exactly how much biodiesel would be needed to replace all petroleum transportation fuels. So, we need to start with how much petroleum is currently used for that purpose. Per the Department of Energy's statistics, each year the US consumes roughly 60 billion gallons of petroleum diesel and 120 billion gallons of gasoline. First, we need to realize that spark-ignition engines that run on gasoline are generally about 40% less efficient than diesel engines. So, if all spark-ignition engines are gradually replaced with compression-ignition (Diesel) engines for running biodiesel, we wouldn't need 120 billion gallons of biodiesel to replace that 120 billion gallons of gasoline. To be conservative, we will assume that the average gasoline engine is 35% less efficient, so we'd need 35% less diesel fuel to replace that gasoline. That would work out to 78 billion gallons of diesel fuel. Combine that with the 60 billion gallons of diesel already used, for a total of 138 billion gallons. Now, biodiesel is about 5-8% less energy dense than petroleum diesel, but its greater lubricity and more complete combustion offset that somewhat, leading to an overall fuel efficiency about 2% less than petroleum diesel. So, we'd need about 2% more than that 138 billion gallons, or 140.8 billion gallons of biodiesel. So, this figure is based on vehicles equivalent to those in use today, but with compression-ignition (Diesel) engines running on biodiesel, rather than a mix of petroleum diesel and gasoline. Combined diesel-electric hybrids in wide use, as well as fewer people driving large SUVs when they don't need such a vehicle would of course bring this number down considerably, but for now we'll just stick with this figure. (note - my point here is not to claim that conservation is not worthwhile, rather to strictly look at the issue of replacing our current use of fuel with biodiesel - to see how achievable that is). I would like to point out though that a preferable scenario would include a shift to diesel-electric hybrid vehicles (preferably with the ability to be recharged and drive purely on electric power for a short range, perhaps 20-40 miles, to provide the option of zero emissions for in-city driving), and with far fewer people buying 6-8,000 pound SUVs merely to commute to work in by themselves. Those changes could drastically reduce the amount of fuel required for our automotive transportation, and are technologically feasibly currently (see for example Chrysler's Dodge Intrepid ESX3, built under Clinton's PNGV program - a full-size diesel electric hybrid sedan that averaged 72 mpg in mixed driving ^{6, 7}).

One of the biggest advantages of biodiesel compared to many other alternative transportation fuels is that it can be used in existing diesel engines without modification, and can be blended in at any ratio with petroleum diesel. This completely eliminates the "chicken-and-egg" dilemma that other alternatives have, such as hydrogen powered fuel cells. For hydrogen vehicles, even when (and if) vehicle manufacturers eventually have production stage vehicles ready (which currently cost around $1 million each to make), nobody would buy them unless there was already a wide scale hydrogen fuel production and distribution system in place. But, no companies would be interested in building that wide scale hydrogen fuel production and distribution system until a significant number of fuel cell vehicles are on the road, so that consumers are ready to start using it. With a single hydrogen fuel pump costing roughly $1 million, installing just one at each of the 176,000 fuel stations across the US would cost $176 billion - a cost that can be completely avoided with liquid biofuels that can use our current infrastructure.

With biodiesel, since the same engines can run on conventional petroleum diesel, manufacturers can comfortably produce diesel vehicles before biodiesel is available on a wide scale - as some manufacturers already are (the same can be said for flex-fuel vehicles capable of running on ethanol, gasoline, or any blend of the two). As biodiesel production continues to ramp up, it can go into the same fuel distribution infrastructure, just replacing petroleum diesel either wholly (as B100, or 100% biodiesel), or blended in with diesel. Not only does this eliminate the chicken-and-egg problem, making biodiesel a much more feasible alternative than hydrogen, but also eliminates the huge cost of revamping the nationwide fuel distribution infrastructure.

II. Large scale production

There are two steps that would need to be taken for producing biodiesel on a large scale - growing the feedstocks, and processing them into biodiesel. The main issue that is often contested is whether or not we would be able to grow enough crops to provide the vegetable oil (feedstock) for producing the amount of biodiesel that would be required to completely replace petroleum as a transportation fuel. So, that is the main issue that will be addressed here. The point of this article is not to argue that this approach is the only one that makes sense, or that we should ignore other options (there are some other very appealing options as well, and realistically it makes more sense for a combination of options to be used). Rather, the point is merely to look at one option for producing biodiesel, and see if it would be capable of meeting our needs.

One of the important concerns about wide-scale development of biodiesel is if it would displace croplands currently used for food crops. In the US, roughly 450 million acres of land is used for growing crops, with the majority of that actually being used for producing animal feed for the meat industry. Another 580 million acres is used for grassland pasture and range, according to the USDA's Economic Research Service. This accounts for nearly half of the 2.3 billion acres within the US (only 3% of which, or 66 million acres, is categorized as urban land). For any biofuel to succeed at replacing a large quantity of petroleum, the yield of fuel per acre needs to be as high as possible. At heart, biofuels are a form of solar energy, as plants use photosynthesis to convert solar energy into chemical energy stored in the form of oils, carbohydrates, proteins, etc.. The more efficient a particular plant is at converting that solar energy into chemical energy, the better it is from a biofuels perspective. Among the most photosynthetically efficient plants are various types of algaes.

The Office of Fuels Development, a division of the Department of Energy, funded a program from 1978 through 1996 under the National Renewable Energy Laboratory known as the "Aquatic Species Program". The focus of this program was to investigate high-oil algaes that could be grown specifically for the purpose of wide scale biodiesel production¹. The research began as a project looking into using quick-growing algae to sequester carbon in CO₂ emissions from coal power plants. Noticing that some algae have very high oil content, the project shifted its focus to growing algae for another purpose - producing biodiesel. Some species of algae are ideally suited to biodiesel production due to their high oil content (some well over 50% oil), and extremely fast growth rates. From the results of the Aquatic Species Program², algae farms would let us supply enough biodiesel to completely replace petroleum as a transportation fuel in the US (as well as its other main use - home heating oil) - but we first have to solve a few of the problems they encountered along the way.

NREL's research focused on the development of algae farms in desert regions, using shallow saltwater pools for growing the algae. Using saltwater eliminates the need for desalination, but could lead to problems as far as salt build-up in bonds. Building the ponds in deserts also leads to problems of high evaporation rates. There are solutions to these problems, but for the purpose of this paper, we will focus instead on the potential such ponds can promise, ignoring for the moment the methods of addressing the solvable challenges remaining when the Aquatic Species Program at NREL ended.

NREL's research showed that one quad (7.5 billion gallons) of biodiesel could be produced from 200,000 hectares of desert land (200,000 hectares is equivalent to 780 square miles, roughly 500,000 acres), if the remaining challenges are solved (as they will be, with several research groups and companies working towards it, including ours at UNH). In the previous section, we found that to replace all transportation fuels in the US , we would need 140.8 billion gallons of biodiesel, or roughly 19 quads (one quad is roughly 7.5 billion gallons of biodiesel). To produce that amount would require a land mass of almost 15,000 square miles. To put that in perspective, consider that the Sonora desert in the southwestern US comprises 120,000 square miles. Enough biodiesel to replace all petroleum transportation fuels could be grown in 15,000 square miles, or roughly 12.5 percent of the area of the Sonora desert (note for clarification - I am not advocating putting 15,000 square miles of algae ponds in the Sonora desert. This hypothetical example is used strictly for the purpose of showing the scale of land required). That 15,000 square miles works out to roughly 9.5 million acres - far less than the 450 million acres currently used for crop farming in the US, and the over 500 million acres used as grazing land for farm animals.

The algae farms would not all need to be built in the same location, of course (and should not for a variety of reasons). The case mentioned above of building it all in the Sonora desert is purely a hypothetical example to illustrate the amount of land required. It would be preferable to spread the algae production around the country, to lessen the cost and energy used in transporting the feedstocks. Algae farms could also be constructed to use waste streams (either human waste or animal waste from animal farms) as a food source, which would provide a beautiful way of spreading algae production around the country. Nutrients can also be extracted from the algae for the production of a fertilizer high in nitrogen and phosphorous. By using waste streams (agricultural, farm animal waste, and human sewage) as the nutrient source, these farms essentially also provide a means of recycling nutrients from fertilizer to food to waste and back to fertilizer. Extracting the nutrients from algae provides a far safer and cleaner method of doing this than spreading manure or wastewater treatment plant "bio-solids" on farmland.

These projected yields of course depend on a variety of factors, sunlight levels in particular. The yield in North Dakota, for example, wouldn't be as good as the yield in California. Spreading the algae production around the country would result in more land being required than the projected 9.5 million acres, but the benefits from distributed production would outweigh the larger land requirement. Further, these yield estimates are based on what is theoretically achievable - roughly 15,000 gallons per acre-year. It's important to point out that the DOE's ASP that projected that such yields are possible, was never able to come close to achieving such yields. Their focus on open ponds was a primary factor in this, and the research groups that have picked up where the DOE left off are making substantial gains in the yields compared to the old DOE work - but we still have a ways to go. But, consider that even if we are only able to sustain an average yield of 5,000 gallons per acre-year in algae systems spread across the US, the amount of land required would still only be 28.5 million acres - a mere fraction still of the total farmland area in the US.

III. Cost

In "The Controlled Eutrophication process: Using Microalgae for CO₂ Utilization and Agircultural Fertilizer Recycling"³, the authors estimated a cost per hectare of $40,000 for algal ponds. In their model, the algal ponds would be built around the Salton Sea (in the Sonora desert) feeding off of the agircultural waste streams that normally pollute the Salton Sea with over 10,000 tons of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers each year. The estimate is based on fairly large ponds, 8 hectares in size each. To be conservative (since their estimate is fairly optimistic), we'll arbitrarily increase the cost per hectare by 100% as a margin of safety. That brings the cost per hectare to $80,000. Ponds equivalent to their design could be built around the country, using wastewater streams (human, animal, and agricultural) as feed sources. We found that at NREL's yield rates, 15,000 square miles (3.85 million hectares) of algae ponds would be needed to replace all petroleum transportation fuels with biodiesel. At the cost of $80,000 per hectare, that would work out to roughly $308 billion to build the farms.

The operating costs (including power consumption, labor, chemicals, and fixed capital costs (taxes, maintenance, insurance, depreciation, and return on investment) worked out to $12,000 per hectare. That would equate to $46.2 billion per year for all the algae farms, to yield all the oil feedstock necessary for the entire country. Compare that to the $100-150 billion the US spends each year just on purchasing crude oil from foreign countries, with all of that money leaving the US economy.

These costs are based on the design used by NREL - the simple open-top raceway pond. Various approaches being examined by the research groups focusing on algae biodiesel range from being the same general system, to far more complicated systems. As a result, this cost analysis is very much just a general approximation.

While the work on algae for fuel production done in the 1980s and 1990s focused almost entirely on the simple open pond approach, most groups now working in this field (including our collaboration) have shifted to focusing on the use of proprietary photobioreactors. The primary reason being that most of the problems encountered by prior work (takeover by low oil strains, vulnerability to temperature fluctuations, high evaporation losses, etc.) are primarily a result of using open ponds. Going with enclosed photobioreactors can immediately solve the bulk of the problems encountered by prior research. The obvious drawback though is cost - any photobioreactor design is going to be have a higher capital cost than a simple, open pond. At this point, a key factor in making algal biodiesel a commercial reality is the development of photobioreactors that can offer high yields (optimization of light path, etc.), but be built inexpensively enough to offer a reasonable payback rate (otherwise no company would be interested in building them). Improving processing technologies, and designing an integrated system to tie the algae production into other processes (i.e. wastestream treatment, power plant emissions reduction, etc.), can further improve the economics and payback rate. UNH and our collaborators are currently focusing on these issues, with the goal of making algal biodiesel a commercial reality.

IV. Other issues

To make biodiesel, you need not only the vegetable oil, but an alcohol as well (either ethanol or methanol). The alcohol only constitutes about 10% of the volume of the biodiesel. Among the most land-efficient and energy-efficient methods of producing alcohol is from hydrolysis and fermentation of plant cellulose. In the early days of the automobile, most vehicles ran on biofuels, with Henry Ford himself being a big advocate of alcohol produced from industrial hemp (not to be confused with marijuana). The Department of Energy's "Mustard Project" has focused on the prospect of growing mustard for the dual purposes of biodiesel and organic pesticide production. Their process focused on alternating mustard crops with wheat. One nice effect of this is that the biomass from the mustard (after harvesting the seed ) could be used as the cellulose feedstock for producing alcohol for biodiesel production.

V. Hydrogen?

Hydrogen as a fuel has received widespread attention in the media of late, particularly ever since the Bush administration proclaimed that developing a hydrogen economy would clean our air, and free us of oil dependence. There are many problems with using hydrogen as a fuel. The first, and most obvious, is that hydrogen gas is extremely explosive. To store hydrogen at high pressures for as a transportation fuel, it is essential to have tanks that are constructed of rust-proof materials, so that as they age they won't rust and spring leaks. Hydrogen has to be stored at very high pressures to try to make up for its low energy density. Diesel fuel has an energy density of 1,058 kBtu/cu.ft. Biodiesel has an energy density of 950 kBtu/cu.ft, and hydrogen stored at 3,626 psi (250 times atmospheric pressure) only has an energy density of 68 kBtu/cu.ft.⁴ So, highly pressurized to 250 atmospheres, hydrogen's volumetric energy density is only 7.2% of that of biodiesel. The result being that with similar efficiencies of converting that stored chemical energy into motion (as diesel engines and fuel cells have), a hydrogen vehicle would need a fuel tank roughly 14 times as large to yield the same driving range as a biodiesel powered vehicle. To get a 1,000 mile range, a tractor trailer running on diesel needs to store 168 gallons of diesel fuel. When biodiesel's slightly lower energy density and the greater efficiency of the engine running on biodiesel are taken into account, it would need roughly 175 gallons of biodiesel for the same range. But, to run on hydrogen stored at 250 atmospheres, to get the same range would require 2,360 gallons of hydrogen. Dedicating that much space to fuel storage would drastically reduce how much cargo trucks could carry. Additionally, the cost of the high pressure, corrosion resistant storage tanks to carry that much fuel is astronomical.

There are two main options for producing hydrogen - generating it from water, and extracting it from other fuels. With each case, the energy efficiency is well below 100% (i.e. you have to put more energy into separating the hydrogen than the chemical energy the hydrogen itself has). I will look at each individually, and then analyze the use of hydrogen as a fuel in general. Currently, most hydrogen used industrially is extracted from natural gas through steam reformation. At current usage rates, the United States will deplete its projected natural gas reserves in 46 years - or deplete the currently proven reserves in roughly 10 years (we use around 22.5 trillion cubic feet (tcf) a year, and have a little over 200 tcf of proven reserves). If the use of natural gas for transportation (whether directly, or as hydrogen extracted from natural gas) increases dramatically, the time it will take before we use up all of our reserves will decrease correspondingly. One of the primary reasons for looking for alternatives to petroleum is to decrease our dependence on foreign fuels. If we spend trillions of dollars converting to using natural gas, only to use up our own reserves in a decade or two, we would find ourselves back in the exact same position of being dependent on foreign sources.

Thus, the focus needs to be on renewable fuels that we cannot run out of. For hydrogen, it is only renewable when it is extracted from biomass, or when the hydrogen is produced by electrolyzing water using renewable energies (wind, solar, etc.). The option of producing it from biomass is not particularly enticing. It can be done through gasification and steam reformation, but with a disappointingly low thermal efficiency. The need to compress or liquify (or bind in another form such as a metal hydride) the hydrogen for transport and storage further reduces the efficiency, and increases the cost. Biomass can be converted to liquid fuels more efficiently, yielding a fuel with far higher energy density, and that can work in existing, affordable vehicles. So, since biomass derived hydrogen is less appealing than liquid biofuels, let's consider the option of producing hydrogen through electrolysis.

VI. Hydrogen electrolyzed from water

The first way to look at a potential transportation fuel is to examine the overall energy efficiency for its production. Ultimately we want to know how much energy you get back for each unit of energy you put into developing the fuel - or the Energy Return on Investment (EROI). The higher the EROI, the better.

When discussing hydrogen as a fuel, people usually take a very simplified approach. When used in a fuel cell, the only by-product of using hydrogen as a fuel is water. However, that completely ignores the issue of where the hydrogen came from in the first place. It is tempting to think that this hydrogen would be produced by electrolyzing water using renewable energy sources, such as wind. To see how realistic this approach is, it is important to analyze the overall energy balance, and henceforth the amount of energy that would need to be produced for the fuel to be used on a wide scale.

A common dream from the environmentalist community is having a solar panel on the roof of a home to electrolyze water, producing hydrogen for a fuel cell vehicle. It's a nice dream, but not particularly realistic. As a real world example, consider Honda's facility in California that requires an 8 kW solar array to produce enough hydrogen to drive one small hydrogen vehicle roughly 7,500 miles per year^{8, 9, 10}. Such an array could power several homes in California, but is only enough for powering one small car half the normal driving range in the US. For an average family with two vehicles that drive an average distance of 15,000 miles per year, an array of 32 kW would be needed - considerably more with larger vehicles. A 32 kW array would cost on the order of $160,000, and could not be installed just on the rooftop of a single home - it would likely require the south-facing rooftops of at least 4-8 houses to power the vehicles from one home (and that's if you live in sunny California - in less sunny regions you'd need considerably more). The inefficiency of using electricity to produce and use hydrogen means it makes far more sense to first use any newly installed solar or wind power as direct electricity consumption (in houses, businesses, etc.), rather than for hydrogen vehicles. A home in California could meet all of its electric needs with perhaps a 2-4 kW array, depending on the household efficiency. Yet to power their vehicles it would require a 32 kW array or more. With so few people installing the much smaller arrays needed to meet their electrical needs, how likely is it that many would install (or be able to afford to install) a much larger array for their vehicles?

Why does it require so large an array? Look at the efficiency. Electrolysis systems are around 70% efficient (smaller scale systems are less efficient, large scale industrial ones are higher - 70% is a rough average). That means that for each unit of energy you put in, the amount of recoverable energy in the hydrogen produced is equal to 0.7 units. The hydrogen then needs to be compressed to high pressures for storage in fuel tanks (due to the low energy density, hydrogen has to be stored at high pressures so that vehicles can have a reasonable range). Compressing the hydrogen is roughly 85% efficient, liquefaction considerably lower. I will ignore the cost of transporting hydrogen, the efficiency of which is far lower than transporting biodiesel. Since it is highly unlikely that clean solar or wind power would be used for electrolyzing water to make hydrogen (see the above paragraph), I will assume that it would use coal or natural gas derived electricity (this could also come from burning biomass). Most such power plants operate with efficiencies below 40%, but I will use that very favorable figure.

So, the hydrogen fuel can be produced with an overall efficiency of 23.8% - or an EROI of 0.238. Current generation fuel cells are 40-60% efficient. Assuming a very favorable 60% efficiency, that reduces the overall energy return down to 14.28%. That means that for each unit of energy in the form of fuel burned to make electricity, only 14.28% of it is usable for powering the electric motor in a fuel cell vehicle. Steam reformation of natural gas is a far more likely scenario for hydrogen production, as it can be done with roughly a 66% efficiency. Including compression (85%) and use in a fuel cell (a very favorable 60%, with 45% being more likely), the overall efficiency is then 33.6% (or a fossil energy balance of 0.336). The problem is natural gas is not a renewable resource, and the US could not meet the demand of a nationwide hydrogen economy fed off natural gas. We would simply be replacing foreign oil dependence with foreign natural gas dependence. With natural gas being much more expensive (and inefficient) to transport over long distances, this isn't a desirable scenario.

The limited range of hydrogen powered vehicles makes them comparable to electric vehicles in many ways. The energy efficiency, however, is completely different. While a hydrogen vehicle would use electricity to electrolyze water to get hydrogen for fuel, an electric vehicle uses electricity to charge batteries. Battery charging systems are around 90% efficient, compared to the 70% efficiency for electrolysis. Using the charged batteries and an electric motor to propel a car has an efficiency in the 90% range, giving electric cars an overall energy efficiency of around 81% (once the electricity is produced, so not counting energy losses at that end). By contrast, once the electricity is produced, the efficiency is only around 32%. As can be seen, if the desire is to use electricity to power our vehicles, it is far more efficient to do so with electric cars, rather than hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Electric vehicles are also far cheaper, another plus. This is why diesel-electric hybrids with the ability to be recharged and operate solely on electric power for a short range are an ideal choice for people who live in cities, or have short commutes to work. It allows fairly efficient zero-emissions operation on short commutes, while the diesel engine running on biodiesel allows zero net greenhouse gas emissions and practically-zero regulated emissions on longer trips.

What is the energy efficiency for producing biodiesel? Based on a report by the US DOE and USDA entitled "Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel for Use in an Urban Bus"⁵, biodiesel produced from soy has an energy balance of 3.2:1. That means that for each unit of energy put into growing the soybeans and turning the soy oil into biodiesel, we get back 3.2 units of energy in the form of biodiesel. That works out to an energy efficiency of 320% (when only looking at fossil energy input - input from the sun, for example, is not included). The reason for the energy efficiency being greater than 100% is that the growing soybeans turn energy from the sun into chemical energy (oil). Current generation diesel engines are 43% efficient (HCCI diesel engines under development, and heavy duty diesel engines have higher efficiencies approaching 55% (better than fuel cells), but for the moment we'll just use current car-sized diesel engine technology). That 3.2 energy balance is for biodiesel made from soybean oil - a rather inefficient crop for the purpose. Other feedstocks such as algaes can yield substantially higher energy balances, as can using thermochemical processes for processing wastes into biofuels (such as the thermal depolymerization process pioneered by Changing World Technologies). Such approaches can yield EROI values ranging from 5-10, potentially even higher.

The challenge of algae fuel: An expert speaks

2007-08-26T02:34:00.001-07:00

Making fuel out of algae is one of those ideas that everyone loves. An acre of algae can produce 50 times more oil than an acre of soy, estimates John Sheehan, now vice president of strategy and sustainable development at LiveFuels.

"It can produce a lot of oil," he said in an interview on Wednesday.

The oil can be used to make biodiesel or synthetic forms of petroleum or both. Many hope that algae-based fuel can sell for around $40 to $50 a barrel, or a lot less than crude.

Algae facilities can also suck significant amounts of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. The fumes coming out of utility smokestacks can be piped into algae growing facilities. And to top it off, algae's not a massive food crop at the moment, so you aren't using a valuable food crop to gas cars.

Sheehan's not new to the field. He oversaw biomass, ethanol and algae programs at National Renewable Energy Labs. An NREL paper on algae--along with research from some of the national labs--forms the basis of a lot of the thinking around algae.

Right now, though, no one is producing it commercially. Companies such as LiveFuels, GreenFuel Technologies and Solazyme hope to start seeing algae oil get into the fuel markets in a substantial way over the next few years, but it's still mostly experimental. GreenFuel recently hit some snags and changed CEOs.

One challenge is removing the water. It's not uncommon to have 1 gram of usable algae in every liter of water. "That's 1,000 parts of water for every part of algae," he said.

The industry is also in the midst of a few religious wars. One is controlled versus open ponds. In controlled facilities, engineers can regulate the growth of organisms and control what kinds of species grow in the environment. These facilities cost quite a bit. Controlling the rate of growth can also be a problem.

"Open ponds are the cheapest, simplest solution," he said. "But it is much harder to maintain consistency."

Then there is the question of using biologically enhanced organisms or a mixture of naturally occurring species. Enhanced organisms can produce more oil per cell. However, they may not thrive if foreign species enter the pond.

LiveFuels is an open pond/multispecies company, by the way.

"The issue is: is it doable?" he said. "The question is: can we get the costs down to where it can compete" with fossil fuels?

Algae could be the new bio-diesel source

2007-08-26T01:10:00.001-07:00

Indrani Dutta

Sunderbans chosen as a site for proposed algae cultivation

"Algae as a bio-diesel source better than jatropha"

3 cultivation sites found; work may start by December

KOLKATA: The Sundarbans delta, an archipelago of some 100 islands spread over 4,262 sq. km. on the Indian side of the Bay of Bengal, is becoming the incubator of ecology-friendly energy sources which are now lighting up the lives of many people who may never get access to conventional forms of electricity or grid power.

A new chapter will open if the efforts to try out algae cultivation in order to extract bio-diesel reaches fruition. It comes on the back of success achieved in tapping renewable energy forms such as solar, wind, biomass and solar-wind hybrids. A 10 MW capacity has already been created in this remote deltaic marshland which is the world's largest mangrove swamp.

Sources told The Hindu that a Chennai-based company, Bio Max, is keen on setting up an algae cultivation project, on one of the uninhabited Sundarbans islands. S.P. Gonchowdhury, director, West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Ag ency, said the economics of algae as a bio-diesel source was better than jatropha which needed land for cultivation, while algae could be grown on marshy lands. A presentation on the proposed project has been made by the company before the West Bengal government. Confirming its interest in the project, N.S. Balamukundan, director, Bio Max, told The Hindu that three sites in the Sundarbans had been identified and work may start by December. An investment of Rs. 80 crore is proposed acc ording to Mr. Balamukundan.

However, in the wake of the ongoing controversy over land acquisition, government officials are tight-lipped about the proposed project. This is despite the fact that only 54 of the Sundarbans islands are inhabited and this project needing 1,000 acres will come up on one of the many tracts of land (called "chor" in Bengali) created by the ebbs and tides of the many rivers that criss-cross the area. West Bengal Minister for Sundarbans Kanti Ganguly said any project in the ecologically fragile area would be allowed only after taking measures to preserve the environment and getting all regulatory clearances from New Delhi. "As for land, preference would be on giving government-owned land, keeping farm lands and homesteads intact."

Cultivating Algae for Liquid Fuel Production

2007-08-25T05:32:00.001-07:00

WITH THE INCREASING INTEREST in biodiesel as an alternative to petrodiesel, many have looked at the possibility of growing more oilseed crops as a solution to the problem of peak oil. There are two problems with this approach: first, growing more oilseed crops would displace the food crops grown to feed mankind. Second, traditional oilseed crops are not the most productive or efficient source of vegetable oil. Micro-algae is, by a factor of 8 to 25 for palm oil. and a factor of 40 to 120 for rapeseed, the highest potential energy yield temperate vegetable oil crop. Michael Briggs at the Univ. of N. Hampshire Biodiesel group estimates that using open. outdoor, racetrack ponds, only 15,000 square miles could produce enough algae to meet all of the USA's ground transportation needs. Transportation accounts for 67% of US oil consumption according to the Atlantic Monthly, July/August 2005. We'll say more about the 15,000 square mile number below. If all of this land were in one rectangular piece, it would be 120 miles by 125 miles—about 1/7th of the area of the state of Colorado.

Gallons of Oil per	Acre per Year
Corn	18
Soybeans	48
Safflower	83
Sunflower	102
Rapeseed	127
Oil Palm	635
Micro Algae	5000-15000

In this article we will first look at some of the publicly available research that has been done on the use of algae as a source for biodiesel. We will then examine some current projects that are using or trying to use algae to produce biodiesel. Finally, we will look at the implications of these for our energy future.

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory

During the oil crisis of the 1970s, Congress funded the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) within the Department of Energy to investigate alternative fuels and energy sources. Between 1978 and 1996, the Aquatic Species Program (ASP) focused on the production of biodiesel from high lipid-content algae growing in outdoor ponds and using CO₂ from coal-fired power plants to increase the rate of algae growth and reduce carbon emissions. Prior to this program, very little work had been done to understand the growth process and metabolic composition of algae. As a result of the ASP there are now some 300 species, mostly diatoms and green algae, in a collection stored at the Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center that is available to researchers interested in developing algae as an energy source. (2)

Some results listed in the Close Out Report of the ASP are:

· Under optimum growing conditions micro-algae will produce up to 4 lbs./sq. ft./year or 15,000 gallons of oil/acre/year. Micro-algae are the fastest growing photosynthesizing organisms. They can complete an entire growing cycle every few days.

· One quad (1015 BTU or 7.5 billion gal.) of biodiesel could be produced on 200,000 ha of desert land (equivalent to 772 sq. mi., roughly 500,000 acres). (To produce one quad from a rapeseed crop would require 58 million acres or 90,000 sq. mi.)

· The outdoor race-track pond production system is the only economically feasible approach given the cost of petroleum in 1996. (One of the problems with growing algae in any kind of pond is that only in the top 1/4" or so of the water does the algae receive enough solar radiation. So the ability of a pond to grow algae is limited by its surface area, not by its volume.)

· Algae contains fat, carbohydrates, and protein. Some of the micro-algae contain up to 60% fat. Once the fat is 'harvested'— some 70% can be harvested by pressing—what remains becomes a good animal feed or can be processed to produce ethanol.

· The desert test location in New Mexico had sufficient sunlight, but low nighttime temperatures limited the ability to achieve consistently high productivity.

· There were problems getting lab-cultured algae to grow in the outside pond environment.

· No tests were carried out on mechanisms and procedures for harvesting the algae nor on the extraction of oils from the algae.

GreenFuel bioreactor in field test

GreenFuel Technologies in Cambridge, MA is field testing a closed system that uses the CO₂ in power plant flue gases (13% of flue gases in the test) to feed algae. (3,4) In so doing, it significantly reduced the CO₂ concentration in the exhaust by 82.3% (+/-12.5%) on sunny days and by 50.1% (+/- 6.5%) on cloudy days during the beta-test at the Cogeneration Plant at MIT. (5) The process also removed 85.9% (+/- 2.1%) of nitrogen oxides. And, not only will the GreenFuel Bioreactors reduce carbon and NOx emissions, but the company estimates the cost of a full-scale system installation to be 20% to 40% less than that of a comparable SCR system (pollutant scrubbers).

Using technology licensed from a NASA project, GreenFuel constructs triangular-shaped bioreactors from polycarbonate tubing two to three meters long and 10-20 cm in diameter. The hypotenuse of the triangles face the sun. Flue gases are introduced at the bottom of the hypotenuse and flow up while the media containing the algae flow in the opposite direction. From 15% to 30% of the algal media are harvested each day. The use of tubes in which to grow the algae overcomes the usual surface area limitation of ponds. In this case the turbulent mixing of the algal media with CO₂ in the tubes and the speed at which the fluid moves determine how fast the algae grow.

"Until now, it was proving that the technology works. Now, basically, it's proving that the economics behind the technology work," said Isaac Berzin, chief technology officer. "The idea behind all this is that it's not a charity. If it makes sense economically, it will happen." "I read descriptions of all this (previous) research, and it was clear to me that the limiting factor was the engineering side of the system," he said. "Algae can take (carbon dioxide), eat it, and produce algae, that's a known fact. But if your system fails, it's a problem with the system, not the algae."

A GreenFuel Technologies bioreactor in operation. Photos courtesy GreenFuel Technologies.

GreenFuel estimates that 70% of the power plants in the United States have enough space and 'food' to install a full complement of Bioreactor arrays. In the United States about 60% of the oil we use is for ground transportation—cars, vans, and trucks—while only about 25% is used as electricity. Potentially this means that GreenFuel reactors might be able to provide 2025% of the fuel needed to meet our transportation needs.

The GreenFuel Bioreactors could be used to fuel the power plant from which the algae are being fed. So you could build a power plant—including the reactors—and only have to provide it with enough fuel to get the bioreactors going! These reactors could also be used in breweries, fed from the excess CO₂ that most breweries just waste.

Large-Scale Algae Production

Michael Briggs, a physicist in the University of New Hampshire (UNH) Biodiesel group, calculated the annual equivalent amount of biodiesel needed to meet all US ground transportation needs. (6) He assumes that all gasoline-powered vehicles could be replaced over time—the average life of a car in the US is 20 years—by biodiesel vehicles. He assumes no change in the current average fleet mileage, but does factor in that diesel engines are more efficient. With these assumptions—and a correction for the 2% lower mileage for biodiesel—he arrives at 140.8 billion gallons of biodiesel a year to meet US ground transportation needs. He does note that if people began to buy diesel hybrids (Mercedes showed its diesel hybrid concept car in June and it gets 70 mpg), the total fuel required might be reduced by a factor of three or more. (7)

Briggs used the numbers from NREL's Aquatic Species Program—that one quad (7.5 billion gallons) of biodiesel could be produced on 200,000 ha (roughly 500,000 acres) or about 780 square miles—to compute that 140.8 billion gallons of biodiesel would requre 19 quads (140.8 ÷ 7.5).This would require about 15,000 square miles (19 x 780), or about 9.5 million acres—which he notes is only about 12.5% of the area of the Sonoran desert of the Southwest. So using algae as a source of oil for biodiesel with the NREL productivity assumption, the acreage required is less than 3% of the 450 million acres now used to grow crops.

Based on a UNH research project, (8) Briggs then estimates the total cost of producing 140.8 billion gallons of oil (unrefined) for biodiesel at $46.2 billion—substantially less than the $100150 billion that the US currently spends to purchase foreign crude oil. Thus the large-scale algae farms envisioned by NREL would generate many jobs and substantially reduce the US trade deficit.

Other researchers have proposed a mammoth-scale algae production scheme to meet US requirements at fully amortized costs ranging from about $19 to $57 per equivalent barrel of petroleum. (9) This project assumes that an aqueduct could be built from the Pacific ocean to the Salton Sea and another from there to Death Valley and more aqueducts to other desert locations in Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. Such a scheme might have been possible in another era, but it hardly seems likely today.

Small-Scale Production

Small-scale algae production in Solaroof^TM greenhouses (10) could allow small-scale farmers to produce their own fuels. Solaroof^TM greenhouses dramatically reduce the amount of heat required to operate a greenhouse through the winter. Most new commercial greenhouses use two layers of greenhouse plastic. The two layers are separated by an air space which is inflated by a small fan to provide more rigidity to help the roof deflect wind and shed rain and snow. The Solaroof^TM greenhouse has two complete skins—one outside and one inside. During the daytime, this space may also be filled with air, but when the nights are cold or when the days are excessively hot, the space between the two skins is filled with soap bubbles.

The thermodynamics of heat transfer are such that any airspace more than about 1/4 inch has an R-value of 1. As a result, when the 12 to 18 inch space between the skins on a Solaroof greenhouse is filled with soap bubbles, it has an R-value between 20 and 40. During a hot summer day, the soap bubbles act like a cloud over the sun, leaving the inner skin of the roof cool, and appearing to the plants as if it were open sky. This can actually increase growth rates.

In high snow areas, the conventional two-layer plastic covering sheds snow because the greenhouse heating system keeps the inner skin at 50°F (10°C). This temperature is high enough to melt the snow fast enough so that there is no structural loading due to the snow. The system uses a bubble generator to fill the space with bubbles generated from water and soap that are at the ambient temperature of the greenhouse, which would also be about 50°. But unless the bubbles are continuously regenerated during a snow storm, it is doubtful that the snow would melt and relieve the structural loading.

Greenhouses can be modified to produce algae all year round. The surface area limitation which applies to ponds could be overcome in a greenhouse by adding a third layer of plastic inside the other two layers over which the pond water could flow in a thin enough film that it would receive enough solar radiation to grow algae. This should allow the Solaroof^TM greenhouse to produce more algae than the surface area of a normal pond would. This mechanism for exposing the pond water to sunlight is similar to that employed by GreenFuel Technologies.

The greenhouse would also overcome two problems observed in the ASP trials in outdoor ponds—the greenhouse allows for better control of both the temperature and the air in the greenhouse. This should allow optimum growth as well as eliminate the possibility of contamination with local algae.

For small-scale operations to be effective, local co-operative biodiesel processing plants would also have to be constructed to convert the raw oil into fuel. A biodiesel cooperative in LaPlata County, Colorado, just completed a feasibility study that found it feasible to construct a 1-million gallon processing facility there to provide biodiesel for the county and a handful of other large users.

Conclusions

The research work carried out by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory seems to be on the verge of paying off. The bioreactors developed by GreenFuel Technologies could substantially reduce power plant carbon emissions. The biodiesel that these reactors produce could potentially replace 20-25% of the petroleum-based fuel used for transportation. If the GreenFuel technology can be adapted to greenhouses, they could become a small-scale, highly distributed source of fuel oil and perhaps prevent the emergence of a new fuel monopoly like Big Oil. ▲

References

http://journeytoforever.org/biodiesel_yield.html
John Sheehan, Terri Dunahay, John Benemann and Paul Roessler, "A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energy's Aquatic Species Program-Bio-diesel from Algae, Closeout Report", July 1998, NREL/TP-580-24 190 http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24190.pdf
Martin LaMonica, "Start-up drills for oil in algae," News.com, May 20, 2005 http://news.com.com/2102-1008_3-5714269.html?tag=st.util.print
Olivier Danielo, "An Algae Based Fuel," Biofutur, No. 255, May 2005 http://www.greenfuelonline.com/news/algaefuel.pdf
Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic, Yoojeong Kim, Xiaoxi Wu, Isaac Berzin and Jose C. Merchuk, " Air-Lift Bioreactors for Algal Growth on Flue Gas: Mathematical Modeling and Pilot-Plant Studies," Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., Vol. 44, No. 16., published on the web 6/28/2005. http://www.greenfuelonline.com/news/IECR.pdf
Michael Briggs, Widescale Biodiesel Production from Algae, University of New Hampshire, Physics Department, revised August 2004. http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/article_alge.html
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8129979/
http://www.unh.edu/p2/biodiesel/pdf/algae_salton_sea.pdf
http://www.americanenergyindependence.com/biodiesel.html
http://www.solaroof.org/.
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